Original 心理探尋 Psychology心理探尋 Today
Negativity Bias
負面偏見
Have you ever found yourself dwelling on an insult or fixating on your mistakes? Criticisms often have a greater impact than compliments and bad news frequently draws more attention than good. The reason for this is that negative events have a greater impact on our brains than positive ones. Psychologists refer to this as the negative bias (also called the negativity bias), and it can have a powerful effect on your behavior, your decisions, and even your relationships.
你是否曾發現自己會對受到的辱罵或自己犯過的錯誤無法忘懷？批評總是比讚美產生更大影響，負面新聞總是比正面新聞更引人關注。其背後原因在於：負面事件能夠對我們的大腦帶來比積極事件更強烈的影響。心理學家將這一現象稱為“負面偏見”。它對我們的行為、決策，甚至感情關係，都影響巨大。
The negative bias is our tendency not only to register negative stimuli more readily but also to dwell on these events. Also known as positive-negative asymmetry.
負面偏見讓我不僅會更關注負面刺激物，同時也會更易於沉溺於這些負面事件。該現象也被稱為正面-負面不對稱現象。
Your brain is simply built with a greater sensitivity to unpleasant news. The bias is so automatic that it can be detected at the earliest stage of the brain's information processing.
我們的大腦天生對負面事件更敏感。這種偏見會自動出現，以至於在大腦對信息處理過程早期就可出現。
The brain, reacts more strongly to stimuli it deems negative. There is a greater surge in electrical activity (according to studies done by John Cacioppo, Ph.D). Thus, our attitudes are more heavily influenced by downbeat news than good news.
大腦對它所認為的負面刺激物會做出更強烈反應，表現出更強烈電流活動。因此，負面新聞對我們態度所造成的影響要高於正面新聞。
Our capacity to weigh negative input so heavily most likely evolved for a good reason—to keep us out of harm's way. From the dawn of human history, our very survival depended on our skill at dodging danger. The brain developed systems that would make it unavoidable for us not to notice danger and thus, hopefully, respond to it.
我們之所以會進化出這一傾向，是有充分原因的——為了讓我們避免傷害。從人類歷史早期，我們的生存就取決於我們的避險能力。因此，大腦就演化出了這樣一個系統，讓我們肯定能夠注意到危險，並且最好能做出回應。
Having the built-in brain apparatus supersensitive to negativity means that the same bad-news bias also is at work in every sphere of our lives at all times.
大腦對負面事件天生超級敏感，這意味著我們日常生活中，負面新聞也總是會帶給我們更強烈的影響。
This psychological phenomenon explains why bad first impressions can be so difficult to overcome and why past traumas can have such long lingering effects. In almost any interaction, we are more likely to notice negative things and later remember them more vividly.
這種心理現象也解釋了為什麼第一印象如此難以克服，以及過去的創傷為何會影響深遠。在幾乎所有互動中，我們都會更可能去注意到負面事物，而且它們也會給我們留下更鮮明的回憶。
This bias toward the negative leads you to pay much more attention to the bad things that happen, making them seem much more important than they really are.
這種負面偏見會導致我們更關注所發生的負面事物，從而就會讓我們高估它們的重要性。
Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon
巴德爾-邁因霍夫現象
Say, for instance, you’ve just learned a new word that you’ve never heard before. The next thing you know you hear your best mate say it, it’s in the next chapter of the book you’re reading, and your boss uses it in your weekly catch up. It can feel like a huge coincidence. That everyone around you has simultaneously discovered this word also.
假設說，你剛剛學到了一個你之前從沒聽過的新詞。接下來你會發現你的好朋友在說這個詞，你讀的書下一章節裡面也出現了這個詞，你老闆在你每週例會時也在講這個詞。感覺像是巨大的巧合。好像是你身邊的每個人都同時也發現了這個詞。
However, in reality, your brain is playing tricks on you. Fortunately, there is a rational explanation for all these strange goings-on.
但實際上，這只是你的大腦給你玩的一個把戲。幸運的是，在這些奇怪的巧合背後，是有合理解釋的。
What is the science behind the phenomenon?
該現象的心理學解析
Stanford University linguistics professor Arnold Zwicky explored the idea of the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon in detail. He attributes the phenomenon the more scientific name ‘frequency illusion’. According to Zwicky, frequency illusion, or the feeling that once you notice something it is everywhere, is the consequence of two psychological processes: selective attention and confirmation bias.
斯坦福大學語言學教授 Arnold Zwicky 研究了巴德爾-邁因霍夫現象。他給它取了一個更科學的名稱：頻率錯覺。Zwicky 認為，頻率錯覺（一旦你注意到某事物，它就會無處不在）背後，是兩種心理現象在作祟：“選擇關注”與“確認偏見”。
Every day we are ambushed by an incredibly large amount of information, thoughts, and emotions. As it is impossible for our brain to process all of this, we are selective about where we focus our attention. This is what psychologists know as selective attention.
每天，我們都面對著鋪天蓋地的信息、想法和情緒。由於我們的大腦無法處理上述全部內容，我們會選擇所關注的內容。這就是心理學家所說的“選擇關注”。
Where we focus on what is relevant to us and ignore what isn’t. Concerning the concept of the Baader-Meinhof phenomenon, when you learn something new, selective attention means that you’re more likely to notice this than other pieces of information that pass your way.
我們會關注與我們相關信息，忽略無關內容。而在巴德爾-邁因霍夫現象中，當你習得了某樣新知識，相對於其他信息，你就會更可能去關注你所習得的這一新知識。
This is compounded by confirmation bias.
“確認偏見”也是原因之一
This is where our brain actively searches for information that confirms that we are right about something. Within the context of frequency illusion, when we have learned something new confirmation bias leads us to look out for this new piece of information as it is interesting to us.
確認偏見，是指我們的大腦會積極搜索能夠確認我們觀點正確性的信息。在頻率錯覺中，當我們習得了某些新知識，確認偏見就會引導我們去密切注意這一新信息，因為它現在對我們而言是有趣的。
As you begin to notice this new piece of information everywhere, your brain seeks to rationalize this and tells you that it must be new to lots of people who are discovering it at the same time. In reality, you’ve tuned into this piece of information that has actually always been there. Only now you’ve noticed it.
而當你開始注意到這一新信息似乎無處不在，你的大腦會自動給出合理解釋，告訴你，肯定很多人以前也不知道它，而且現在一起發現了它。實際上，這個信息一直都在，只不過你才注意到它而已。
When the frequency illusion occurs, it can feel exciting and like something extra special is happening to us. However, here the term ‘illusion’ speaks volumes and ultimately derives from the way our brains work. The brain loves to seek patterns so it can make sense of the world. Once it has honed in on a new piece of information, it will continue to seek and find this. Disregarding other new pieces of info that it may come across in the process.
當頻率錯覺發生時，會讓人覺得興奮，覺得這超級奇特。但正如該現象名稱所說，它是一種“錯覺”，不過是我們大腦工作原理所導致的而已。大腦喜歡找尋規律，為的是讓它感覺自己能夠理解這個世界。一旦它開始關注某個信息，它會繼續搜尋這一信息，並且無視它在搜尋過程中可能遇到的其他新信息。
延伸閱讀：不要讓這些常見的“認知偏見”毀掉你的判斷力和決策制定
Where did the name come from?
該名稱源於何處？
At this point, you may be thinking ‘why is it called the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon?’ Baader-Meinhof were a militant West German radical leftist group. They engaged in terrorist bombings, arson, kidnappings and assassinations, attacking West German and U.S. military institutions in West Germany during the 1970s. So what on earth has this got to do with frequency illusion?
到這裡，你可能會想，為什麼要叫這個名字呢？Baader-Meinhof（巴德爾-邁因霍夫）是西德軍事極端左傾團體。上世紀70年代，他們開展恐怖主義炸彈襲擊、縱火、綁架、刺殺、攻擊西德的西德和美國軍事組織，無惡不作。那麼，這跟頻率錯覺有何關係呢？
Allegedly, the surprising source of the name was the St.Paul Minnesota Pioneer Press online discussion board. In 1994, one commentator had come across the Baader-Meinhof group two times within 24 hours while he had never heard of them previously. He named this strange occurrence ‘the Badder-Meinhof Phenomenon’.
據說，令人意想不到的是，這一名字最初出現在聖保羅先驅報的網上討論版塊中。1994年，一位讀者在24小時之內，遇到了 Baader-Meinhof 團體這個詞兩次，而他之前從未聽到過這個詞。他將這一奇怪事件取名為“Baader-Meinhof （巴德-邁因霍夫）現象”
Apparently, the originator of the phrase was very surprised by how it had taken off so vehemently after a passing comment in his local paper discussion board. It wasn’t until 2006 that the aforementioned Professor Arnold Zwicky re-named the phenomenon the more scientifically acceptable ‘frequency illusion’.
很明顯，這個“創始人”也十分驚奇在當地報紙評論區隨手發了一條評論之後，這個詞竟會爆火。直至2006年，上文中提到的 Arnold Zwicky 教授將其重新命名為更具科學性的
“頻率錯覺”。How do businesses use the frequency illusion?
商家如何利用頻率錯覺？
It probably won’t be surprising to hear that businesses often use frequency illusion to manipulate us into giving our custom. Also known as the ‘psychology of marketing’, some businesses use the frequency illusion as part of their marketing strategy. They plant an idea in our minds and continue to trigger this thought until they reach the intended outcome.
如果說商家常常用頻率錯覺來操縱我們，你可能並不感到驚奇。作為一種營銷心理學，一些企業在營銷策略中會使用頻率錯覺。他們先在我們大腦中植入一個概念，之後會不斷觸發，直至他們達成他們想要的結果。
It starts with a vibrant image or headline to grab our attention and then they plug this message via a variety of channels repeatedly. In this way, selective attention and confirmation bias work in unison to convince us that there must be a reason why this certain product/idea/event keeps following us around.
首先他們會採用一個引人注意的圖片或標題來獲得你的注意，之後他們會不斷通過其他多種渠道植入這一信息。這樣，選擇關注與確認偏見共同起作用，讓我們誤以為，這件產品/理念/事件不斷在我們周圍出現，肯定是有某種原因的。
Companies using this technique have to be careful that you don’t realize that the frequency illusion is being manipulated. Otherwise, when you see a targeted advert repeatedly, it may freak you out rather than grab your attention.
而使用這一策略的企業需要謹慎，不要讓客戶意識到商家正在利用頻率錯覺現象。否則，當你不斷重複看到一條定向投放的廣告，它可能會嚇到你，而非吸引你的注意。
Having read this article, you will now no doubt be seeing the words ‘Baader-Meinhof’, ‘selective attention’, and ‘confirmation bias’ following you around. At least, now you know that it isn’t a set of incredibly unlikely coincidences. Instead, it is a product of your brain seeking to make patterns in an otherwise indiscernible maze of information.
讀完這篇文章，你肯定會發現“巴德-邁因霍夫”、“選擇關注”和“確認偏見”似乎如影隨形跟著你。至少，現在你知道這不是一些極度不可能的巧合，只是你的大腦試圖在紛亂信息中找出規律而已。
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How to Handle the Coronavirus News
如何應對關於冠狀病毒的新聞
If you’ve been disturbed by the coronavirus news because of high fear of disease and contamination, there are several steps you can take to lower your fear and anxiety.
如果冠狀病毒相關新聞對你造成負面影響，因為你害怕生病，害怕被感染。那麼你可以通過以下步驟，降低恐懼和焦慮：
· Be guided by medical advice and not your feelings: Adopt the health hygiene practices recommended by the CDC. Resist the temptation to go beyond these recommendations in order to feel less anxious or afraid.
· Limit your exposure to coronavirus news: Given your bias for threat, it’s best to restrict time spent searching the latest news on the coronavirus. You’ll want to be well-informed from health advisories but make sure your sources are credible.
· Avoid compulsive washing: Follow the CDC guidelines for washing your hands. If you find yourself washing until you feel better, this may be a sign you’ve slipped into OCD territory.
· Normalize your life: Don’t let fear rule your daily living. As the coronavirus news becomes more urgent, be guided by reason, responsibility, and keep your fears in check.
· 聽從專業醫療建議，而非個人感受：遵循疾控中心建議的健康衛生措施。可能你很想更進一步，做得更極致一些，抑制住這種想法，從而減少你的焦慮感和恐懼感。
· 少看關於冠狀病毒的新聞：考慮到我們對威脅等負面信息會更加關注，最好不要花很多時間去搜索關於冠狀病毒的最新新聞。你需要獲得充分的醫療衛生建議信息，但儘量確保信息來源可靠。
· 避免強迫型清洗：遵循疾控中心發佈的洗手指南。如果你發現自己不斷在洗手，直至自己感覺好一些，那麼這可能意味著你已經開始表現出強迫症（OCD）。
· 讓生活恢復常態：不要讓恐懼支配你的日常生活。當關於冠狀病毒的新聞日益嚴峻，一定要用理性和責任來指引自己，並且剋制自己的恐懼感。
References：
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/200306/our-brains-negative-bias
https://www.learning-mind.com/baader-meinhof-phenomenon/
https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-runaway-mind/202003/media-fear-and-the-coronavirus-outbreak
https://www.verywellmind.com/negative-bias-4589618
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