The next category is the electromagnetic force, which interacts with electrically charged particles like electrons and quarks, but not with uncharged particles such as gravitons. It is much stronger than the gravitational force: the electromagnetic force between two electrons is about a million million million million million million million (1 with forty-two zeros after it)times bigger than the gravitational force. However, there are two kinds of electric charge, positive and negative. The force between two positive charges is repulsive , as is the force between two negative charges, but the force is attractive between a positive and a negative charge. A large body, such as the earth or the sun, contains nearly equal numbers of positive and negative charges. Thus the attractive and repulsive forces between the individual particles nearly cancel each other out, and there is very little net electromagnetic force. However, on the small scales of atoms and molecules, electromagnetic forces dominate. The electromagnetic attraction between negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons in the nucleus causes the electrons to orbit the nucleus of the atom, just as gravitational attraction causes the earth to orbit the sun. The electromagnetic attraction is pictured as being caused by the exchange of large numbers of virtual mass less particles of spin 1, called photons. Again, the photons that are exchanged are virtual particles. However, when an electron changes from one allowed orbit to another one nearer to the nucleus, energy is released and a real photon is emitted -which can be observed as visible light by the human eye, if it has the right wave-length, or by a photon detector such as photographic film. Equally, if a real photon collides with an atom, it may move an electron from an orbit nearer the nucleus to one farther away. This uses up the energy of the photon, so it is absorbed.
Gravitons 引力子
Repulsive 排斥的
Photons 光子
另一種力是電磁力。它作用於帶電荷的粒子（例如電子和夸克）之間，但不和不帶電荷的粒子（例如引力子）相互作用。它比引力強得多：兩個電子之間的電磁力比引力大約大100億億億億億（在1後面有42個0）倍。然而，共有兩種電荷——正電荷和負電荷。同種電荷之間的力是互相排斥的，而異種電荷則互相吸引。一個大的物體，譬如地球或太陽，包含了幾乎等量的正電荷和負電荷。由於單獨粒子之間的吸引力和排斥力幾乎全抵消了，因此兩個物體之間純粹的電磁力非常小。然而，電磁力在原子和分子的小尺度下起主要作用。在帶負電的電子和帶正電的核中的質子之間的電磁力使得電子繞著原子的核作公轉，正如同引力使得地球繞著太陽旋轉一樣。人們將電磁吸引力描繪成是由於稱作光子的無質量的自旋為1的粒子的交換所引起的。而且，這兒所交換的光子是虛粒子。但是，電子從一個允許軌道改變到另一個離核更近的允許軌道時，以發射出實光子的形式釋放能量——如果其波長剛好，則為肉眼可以觀察到的可見光，或可用諸如照相底版的光子探測器來觀察。同樣，如果一個光子和原子相碰撞，可將電子從離核較近的允許軌道移動到較遠的軌道。這樣光子的能量被消耗殆盡，也就是被吸收了。
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