The next category is the electromagnetic force, which interacts with electrically charged particles like electrons and quarks, but not with uncharged particles such as gravitons. It is much stronger than the gravitational force: the electromagnetic force between two electrons is about a million million million million million million million (1 with forty-two zeros after it)times bigger than the gravitational force. However, there are two kinds of electric charge, positive and negative. The force between two positive charges is repulsive , as is the force between two negative charges, but the force is attractive between a positive and a negative charge. A large body, such as the earth or the sun, contains nearly equal numbers of positive and negative charges. Thus the attractive and repulsive forces between the individual particles nearly cancel each other out, and there is very little net electromagnetic force. However, on the small scales of atoms and molecules, electromagnetic forces dominate. The electromagnetic attraction between negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons in the nucleus causes the electrons to orbit the nucleus of the atom, just as gravitational attraction causes the earth to orbit the sun. The electromagnetic attraction is pictured as being caused by the exchange of large numbers of virtual mass less particles of spin 1, called photons. Again, the photons that are exchanged are virtual particles. However, when an electron changes from one allowed orbit to another one nearer to the nucleus, energy is released and a real photon is emitted -which can be observed as visible light by the human eye, if it has the right wave-length, or by a photon detector such as photographic film. Equally, if a real photon collides with an atom, it may move an electron from an orbit nearer the nucleus to one farther away. This uses up the energy of the photon, so it is absorbed.
Gravitons 引力子
Repulsive 排斥的
Photons 光子
另一种力是电磁力。它作用于带电荷的粒子（例如电子和夸克）之间，但不和不带电荷的粒子（例如引力子）相互作用。它比引力强得多：两个电子之间的电磁力比引力大约大100亿亿亿亿亿（在1后面有42个0）倍。然而，共有两种电荷——正电荷和负电荷。同种电荷之间的力是互相排斥的，而异种电荷则互相吸引。一个大的物体，譬如地球或太阳，包含了几乎等量的正电荷和负电荷。由于单独粒子之间的吸引力和排斥力几乎全抵消了，因此两个物体之间纯粹的电磁力非常小。然而，电磁力在原子和分子的小尺度下起主要作用。在带负电的电子和带正电的核中的质子之间的电磁力使得电子绕着原子的核作公转，正如同引力使得地球绕着太阳旋转一样。人们将电磁吸引力描绘成是由于称作光子的无质量的自旋为1的粒子的交换所引起的。而且，这儿所交换的光子是虚粒子。但是，电子从一个允许轨道改变到另一个离核更近的允许轨道时，以发射出实光子的形式释放能量——如果其波长刚好，则为肉眼可以观察到的可见光，或可用诸如照相底版的光子探测器来观察。同样，如果一个光子和原子相碰撞，可将电子从离核较近的允许轨道移动到较远的轨道。这样光子的能量被消耗殆尽，也就是被吸收了。
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