As far as Kepler was concerned, elliptical orbits were merely an ad hoc hypothesis, and a rather repugnant one at that, because ellipses were clearly less perfect than circles. Having discovered almost by accident that elliptical orbits fit the observations well, he could not reconcile them with his idea that the planets were made to orbit the sun by magnetic forces. An explanation was provided only much later, in 1687, when Sir Isaac Newton published his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, probably the most important single work ever published in the physical sciences. In it Newton not only put forward a theory of how bodies move in space and time, but he also developed the complicated mathematics needed to analyze those motions. In addition, Newton postulated a law of universal gravitation according to which each body in the universe was attracted toward every other body by a force that was stronger the more massive the bodies and the closer they were to each other. It was this same force that caused objects to fall to the ground. (The story that Newton was inspired by an apple hitting his head is almost certainly apocryphal. All Newton himself ever said was that the idea of gravity came to him as he sat “in a contemplative mood” and “was occasioned by the fall of an apple.”) Newton went on to show that, according to his law, gravity causes the moon to move in an elliptical orbit around the earth and causes the earth and the planets to follow elliptical paths around the sun.
The Copernican model got rid of Ptolemy’s celestial spheres, and with them, the idea that the universe had a natural boundary. Since “fixed stars” did not appear to change their positions apart from a rotation across the sky caused by the earth spinning on its axis, it became natural to suppose that the fixed stars were objects like our sun but very much farther away.
ad hoc 特别的
repugnant 使人极度反感的
apocryphal 伪的
contemplative 冥想的
就开普勒而言，椭圆轨道仅仅是想当然的，并且是相当讨厌的假设，因为椭圆明显地不如圆那么完美。虽然他几乎是偶然地发现椭圆轨道能很好地和观测相符合，但却不能把它和他的行星绕太阳运动是由于磁力引起的另一思想相互调和起来。对这一切提供解释是晚得多的事，那是由于1687年伊萨克·牛顿爵士出版了他的《数学的自然哲学原理》，这部也许是有史以来物理科学上最重要的单独的著作。在这本中，牛顿不但提出物体如何在空间和时间中运动的理论，并且发展了为分析这些运动所需的复杂的数学。此外，牛顿提出了万有引力定律，根据这定律，宇宙中的任一物体都被另外物体所吸引，物体质量越大，相互距离越近，则相互之间的吸引力越大。这也就是使物体落到地面上的力。（由于一个苹果落到牛顿的头上而使他得到灵感的故事，几乎肯定是不足凭信的。所有牛顿自己说过的只是，当他陷入沉思之时，一颗苹果的落下使他得到了万有引力的思想。）牛顿继而指出，根据他的定律，引力使月亮沿着椭圆轨道绕着地球运行，而地球和其他行星沿着椭圆轨道绕着太阳公转。
哥白尼的模型摆脱了托勒密的天球，以及与其相关的宇宙存在着自然边界的观念。“固定恒星”除了由于地球绕着自身的轴自转引起的穿越天空的转动外，不改变它们的位置，很自然会使人设想到固定恒星是和我们的太阳类似的物体，只是比太阳离开我们远得多了。
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