一套好的試卷，難度適宜，能否原創一套好的試卷，是考驗每一位老師的教學經驗。魏勇老師就自己的命題經驗，與各位老師分享他是如何調控閱讀理解試題的難度。
在平時的常規教學中，佈置考試是教師不可避免的一項任務。我總會聽到同事說：“最近學生學習的積極性不高了，應該出套簡單的卷子，讓學生考好點，給他們打打氣。”或者是“最近這些孩子有些飄了，出套難點的卷子打擊一下他們，讓他們收收心。”可是，如果直接使用成卷，試卷的難度不好把控，考試的效果可能會適得其反。那麼，如何根據學生的學情，原創一套難度適宜的試卷呢？下面，我就自己的命題經驗，與各位同仁一起探討如何調控閱讀理解試題的難度。
01
文本的選擇
以下是一篇選自科學美國人網站的科普性文章。文章的內容是海洋的噪音導致寬吻海豚採用簡化叫聲並提高音量的方式來進行交流，而這樣做，對小海豚的成長是不利的。該文章原文詞數為330，比較符合出題的標準。這樣的文章在試卷中往往是壓軸的閱讀理解題，很多學生一看到科普類文章，就會產生畏難情緒，不知該如何著手。要想降低這篇文章的難度，可以壓縮文章的總詞數，刪除一些補充性的內容以及修飾性的句式，只保留文章的中心含義即可。如果需要保持科普類文本的難度，這篇文章的詞數是合適的，只需要對有些專業性的內容進行修改即可。
Bottlenose dolphins simplify and raise the pitch of their whistles to be heard above underwater shipping noise. Christopher Intagliata reports.
The oceans are getting louder. And coastal areas are some of the noisiest, as in this underwater recording, captured 17 miles off the coast of Ocean City, Maryland.
The noise could be a problem for marine mammals, which, like us, use sound to communicate.“Just like if we’re in a noisy bar, we have to shout to each other, they might have to do that too.”Helen Bailey is a marine biologist at the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.
She and her colleagues recorded two months of underwater sounds, in that same area off the coast of Maryland. They used automated software to fish out 200 bottlenose dolphin whistles from the noise, and visually compared the spectrograms. Here’s a normal whistle.
But what they found was that dolphins dumbed down the complexity of their whistles and raised their pitch, when they were competing with shipping noise. Which apparently helps, but could also hurt, their ability to communicate.
“By using simpler calls, yes, there is a risk they’re not communicating as much information as they would if it was quieter. Also for younger dolphins they actually learn these sounds from hearing other dolphins. So they’re hearing this much simpler language.”
The results—and a few of those spectrograms—are in the journal Biology Letters. [Leila Fouda et al., Dolphins simplify their vocal calls in response to increased ambient noise]
The survey site is the proposed future home of a wind farm—which could mean lots of noise as the huge towers are installed. Until then, it’s the chronic roar of ships and boats that Bailey wants people to ponder.“I think people think about boats in terms of the emissions, just like with cars. And I think what we need to think about is sound is also an emission.”
簡單的文本：
Bottlenose dolphins（寬吻海豚）can raise their sounds to be above underwater shipping noise. Christopher Intagliata reports.
The oceans are getting louder. Because there is more noise. The noise could be a problem for sea animals, which use sound to communicate.“Just like if we’re in a noisy bar, we have to shout to each other, and they might have to do that too.” Helen Bailey is a scientist at the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.
She and her team recorded two months of underwater sounds. They used a software to record 200 bottlenose dolphin whistles from the noise, and did some research.
But what they found was that dolphins made their whistles simple and raised their sounds, when they were competing with shipping noise. It helps, but could also hurt their ability to communicate.
“By using simpler calls, there is a risk that they’re not communicating as much information as they would do in the quiet place. Also for younger dolphins they learn these sounds from hearing other dolphins. So they’re hearing this much simpler language.”
What’s worse, there will be a wind farm near the coast, which could mean lots of noise. Until then, the sound of ships will go on damaging the dolphins. “I think people think about boats in terms of the emissions, just like with cars. And I think what we need to think about is sound is also an emission.” Helen Bailey said.（245字）
困難的文本：
Bottlenose dolphins（寬吻海豚）simplify and raise the tune of their whistles to be heard above underwater shipping noise. Christopher Intagliata reports.
The oceans are getting louder. And coastal areas are some of the noisiest, as in this underwater recording, captured 17 miles off the coast of Ocean City, Maryland.
The noise could be a problem for marine mammals, which, like us, use sound to communicate.“Just like if we’re in a noisy bar, we have to shout to each other, and they might have to do that too.” Helen Bailey is a marine biologist at the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science.
She and her colleagues recorded two months of underwater sounds, in that same area off the coast of Maryland. They used automated software to fish out 200 bottlenose dolphin whistles from the noise, and visually compared the spectrograms（圖譜）.
But what they found was that dolphins cut down the complexity of their whistles and raised their tune, when they were competing with shipping noise. It apparently helps, but could also hurt their ability to communicate.
“By using simpler calls, yes, there is a risk they’re not communicating as much information as they would if it was quieter. Also for younger dolphins they actually learn these sounds from hearing other dolphins. So they’re hearing this much simpler language.”
The results—and a few of those spectrograms—are in the journal Biology Letters.
The survey site is the proposed future home of a wind farm—which could mean lots of noise as the huge towers are installed. Until then, it’s the chronic roar of ships and boats that Bailey wants people to ponder.“I think people think about boats in terms of the emissions, just like with cars. And I think what we need to think about is sound is also an emission.”（314字）
02
命題的範圍及難度的把控
根據《考試大綱》對於考生閱讀能力的要求：
1. 理解主旨要義；
2.理解文中具體信息；
3.根據上下文推斷單詞和短語的含義；
4.做出判斷和推理；
5.理解文章的基本結構；
6.理解作者的意圖、觀點和態度。
我們可以在試題命制中以前四項要求為主要的命題形式，即細節理解題、推理判斷題、詞義猜測題和主旨大意題。下面我以上文中較難的文本為例，介紹命題思路和方法。
1.細節理解題
細節理解題考查的是考生對於文本中細節內容的掌握。通常以when, where, what, which, who, how much/many等疑問詞開頭引出問題。正確選項的設置通常是直接使用原文詞句或者使用原文詞句的同義詞句。而干擾項的設置則包括以下幾點：
（1）答非所問：選項是原文信息，但不是題目要求的內容，或者只是利用原文中的詞彙編造選項；
（2）無中生有：選項符合常理，但無法在原文中找到語義的來源和依據；
（3）張冠李戴：把屬於甲的特徵放在乙的身上。
（4）偷樑換柱：選項所使用的句子結構、詞彙等與原文相似度較高，只是在細節地方更換了一兩個詞，造成句意的改變。
文章第五段第一句為“But what they found was that dolphins cut down the complexity of their whistles and raised their tune, when they were competing with shipping noise.”，其句意為“但他們發現，當海豚在與航運噪音進行對抗時，會降低哨聲的複雜性，並提高音調。”筆者在此處設置了一道細節理解題：
When will the bottlenose dolphins raise their tune according to the text?
A. When they want to catch more fish in the sea.（無中生有）
B. When they want to compete with ship noise.（原句）
C. When they want to record their sound.（張冠李戴）
D. When they want to teach the young dolphins.（偷樑換柱）
如果想要降低這道細節理解題的難度，可增加無中生有的選項，如：
When will the bottlenose dolphins raise their tune according to the text?
A. When they want to catch more fish in the sea.（無中生有）
B. When they want to compete with ship noise.（原句）
C. When they want to sing loud songs with others.（無中生有）
D. When they feel angry with the ships.（無中生有）
2.推理判斷題
推理判斷題主要考查考生的批判性思維能力以及較深刻的理解能力，考生不僅僅要讀懂文章的字面意思，還要體會作者在文章中所隱含的真實意圖。這樣的試題通常其題幹中會出現infer, imply, indicate, suggest, show等詞彙，考查內容有推斷寫作目的和意圖、作者的觀點和態度、文章的深層含義；判斷文章的出處。而干擾項的設置包括以下幾點：
（1）自以為是：以自己的觀點代替作者的觀點；
（2）過猶不及：推理過頭，誇大原文中的細節；
（3）曲解意圖：歪曲作者的目的和意圖；
（4）答非所問：直接照搬原文中的信息，並非按照題幹要求進行推理判斷。
根據文章第六段內容“By using simpler calls, yes, there is a risk they’re not communicating as much information as they would if it was quieter. Also for younger dolphins they actually learn these sounds from hearing other dolphins. So they’re hearing this much simpler language.”可知,如果一直使用簡單高亢的聲音，那麼寬吻海豚就會面臨危機，不會像安靜的時候那樣交流更多的信息，而年幼的海豚是通過傾聽來學習的，即如果這種情況一直持續下去，寬吻海豚的能力就會退化。筆者設置的推理判斷題如下：
What will happen to the bottlenose dolphins if the situation continues?
A. More and more bottlenose dolphins will love to make loud noise.（自以為是）
B. People will lose the bottlenose dolphins forever.（過猶不及）
C. They will have to make long journeys in the ocean.（過猶不及）
D. They will lose the ability to convey complicated information.（深層閱讀，合理推斷）
如果要簡化推理判斷題，可以考查學生對文本體裁的理解或者對作者觀點態度的判斷。如：
What is the author’s attitude towards the wind farm?
A. Negative.
B. Positive.
C. Ambiguous.
D. Supportive.
根據文章最後一段最後兩句可知，作者認為噪音也是一種汙染，而該段第一句提到風力發電站會產生大量噪音，由此可知作者對於建設風力發電站的態度是消極的，故答案為A。
如果要增加試題的難度，可以考慮在干擾項中增加自以為是的選項，混淆考生的思維。如：
根據文章第三段第二句“Just like if we’re in a noisy bar, we have to shout to each other, and they might have to do that too.”可知，Helen Bailey以人們在嘈雜的酒吧裡通過提高音量來進行交流為例，說明在噪音大的環境中，寬吻海豚也會像人類一樣無法輕聲細語地進行交流。試題可以設為：
What can we infer from Helen Bailey’s remarks in the third paragraph？
A. Loud noise may damage the hearing of Bottlenose dolphins.（自以為是）
B. Noise may make the bottlenose dolphins have trouble listening to each other.（合理推理）
C. Bottlenose dolphins may move away from the noisy coastal areas.（自以為是）
D. Bottlenose dolphins may only communicate with each other by sound.（自以為是）
3.詞義猜測題
猜測詞義有兩種，一種是猜測生詞生義，一種是猜測熟詞生義。詞義猜測題往往在文章的上下文中有提示，考生可以根據上下文的語境進行推理。有難度的詞義猜測題可以考查短語、熟詞生義等。而干擾項的設置可以通過熟詞的基本含義來誤導學生。筆者在文章第四段設置了一道詞義猜測題：
She and her colleagues recorded two months of underwater
sounds, in that same area off the coast of Maryland. They used automated software to fish out 200 bottlenose dolphin whistles from the noise, and visually compared the spectrograms （圖譜）.
What does the underlined phrase“fish out”mean in the fourth paragraph?
A. To separate.
B. To record the sound.
C. To catch.
D. To swim like a fish.
根據該段內容可知，研究者們記錄了海底的聲音長達兩個月，這其中包含了各種噪音，他們再利用軟件把寬吻海豚的聲音從各種噪音中“提煉，分離”出來，進行視覺化的圖譜比較。故答案為A。
而考查指示代詞的詞義猜測題就比較簡單了，干擾項可以是範圍過大、過小或錯誤等，如文章的第三段內容：The noise could be a problem for marine mammals, which, like us, use sound to communicate.“Just like if we’re in a noisy bar, we have to shout to each other, and they might have to do that too.” 可以設題如下：
What does the underlined word“they”refer to?
A. Marine mammals.（指代上文）
B. The dolphins.（範圍過小）
C. Human beings.（範圍錯誤）
D. Sea animals. （範圍過大）
該段第一句表明，噪音對於像人類一樣使用聲音來交流的海洋哺乳動物而言，是一個問題，故答案為A。
4.主旨大意題
主旨大意題通常考查考生對文章通篇的理解能力。常見的考查方式包括考查篇章主旨（概括全文的主題）、段落主旨（某一自然段或某幾自然段的主題）和文章的最佳標題。而干擾項的設置通常包括以下幾點：
（1）以偏概全：用某一自然段的大意來概括整篇文章的中心思想 ；
（2）斷章取義：以事實、細節替代全文或某段的主要觀點；
（3）過度概括：選項歸納概括的範圍過大，超出文章闡述的內容；
（4）捏造事實：與文章內容毫不相干或與文章內容相悖。
因為考生往往通過閱讀文章的第一段或者最後一段來對文章總體內容進行概括，那麼，命題人在命題時，反套路而為之，就會增加試題的難度。此外，考生常會選擇簡短的選項，那麼在命制文章標題概括題的干擾項時，反其道而行，容易讓考生掉入“陷阱”。如：
What is the best title for the text?
A. Sound Is Also an Emission
B. Bottlenose Dolphins Raise the Tune
C. Bottlenose Dolphins Raise the Tune to Teach the Young
D. Bottlenose Dolphins Make Easy Calls to Compete with Ship Noise
根據文章主要內容可知，寬吻海豚通過簡化叫聲並提高音量的方式來進行交流，是為了對抗船舶的噪音，故答案為D。
而要降低這種題型的難度，命題人可以按照考生的常規思維，對文章的大意進行總結，使選項符合文章標題簡短、醒目、概括的特點，四個選項長度相當，干擾項錯誤明顯一些，這樣可以讓考生信心大增。如上述試題，可以設為：
What is the best title for the text?
A. How to Protect the Marine Mammals—Bottlenose Dolphins?
B. Bottlenose Dolphins Raise the Tune to Help the Wind Farm
C. Bottlenose Dolphins Raise the Tune to Communicate with Ships
D. Bottlenose Dolphins Make Easy Calls to Compete with Ship Noise
總而言之，在命制閱讀理解試題的時候，簡單或者困難，都是為了檢驗教師的教學效果，以便更好地為學生服務，更好地改進教師的教學方略，教師不能為了難住學生而刻意出偏、難、怪的試題。而應該以整套試題為綱，合理配比，以期達到預設目的。
（作者單位：寧夏石嘴山市第一中學）
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