In the Weinberg-Salam theory, at energies much greater than100 GeV, the three new particles and the photon would all behave in a similar manner. But at the lower particle energies that occur in most normal situations, this symmetry between the particles would be broken. WE, W, and Z0 would acquire large masses, making the forces they carry have a very shortrange. At the time that Salam and Weinberg proposed their theory, few people believed them, and particle accelerators were not powerful enough to reach the energies of 100 GeV required to produce real W+, W-, or Z0 particles. However, over the next ten years or so, the other predictions of the theory at lower energies agreed so well with experiment that, in1979, Salam and Weinberg were awarded the Nobel Prize for physics, together with Sheldon Glashow, also at Harvard, who had suggested similar unified theories of the electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces.
The Nobel committee was spared the embarrassment of having made a mistake by the discovery in1983 at CERN (European Centre for Nuclear Research) of the three massive partners of the photon, with the correct predicted masses and other properties. Carlo Rubbia, who led the team of several hundred physicists that made the discovery, received the Nobel Prize in 1984, along with Simon van der Meer, the CERN engineer who developed the antimatter storage system employed. (It is very difficult to make a mark in experimental physics these days unless you are already at the top! )
The fourth category is the strong nuclear force, which holds the quarks together in the proton and neutron, and holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom. It is believed that this force is carried by another spin-1 particle, called the gluon, which interacts only with itself and with the quarks. The strong nuclear force has a curious property called confinement: it always binds particles together into combinations that have no color. One cannot have a single quark on its own because it would have a color (red, green, or blue).
Antimatter 反物質
Gluon 膠子
在溫伯格——薩拉姆理論中，當能量遠遠超過100吉電子伏時，這三種新粒子和光子的行為方式很相似。但是，大部份正常情況下能量要比這低，粒子之間的對稱就被破壞了。W、W-和Z0得到了大的質量，使之攜帶的力變成非常短程。薩拉姆和溫伯格提出此理論時，很少人相信他們，因為還無法將粒子加速到足以達到產生實的W、W-和Z0粒子所需的一百吉電子伏的能量。但在此後的十幾年裡，在低能量下這個理論的其他預言和實驗符合得這樣好，以至於他們和也在哈佛的謝爾登·格拉肖一起被授予1979年的物理諾貝爾獎。格拉肖提出過一個類似的統一電磁和弱作用的理論。由於1983年在CERN（歐洲核子研究中心）發現了具有被正確預言的質量和其他性質的光子的三個帶質量的伴侶，使得諾貝爾委員會避免了犯錯誤的難堪。領導幾百名物理學家作出此發現的卡拉·魯比亞和發展了被使用的反物質儲藏系統的CERN工程師西蒙·範德·米爾分享了1984年的諾貝爾獎。（除非你已經是巔峰人物，當今要在實驗物理學上留下痕跡極其困難！）
第四種力是強作用力。它將質子和中子中的夸克束縛在一起，並將原子中的質子和中子束縛在一起。一般認為，稱為膠子的另一種自旋為1的粒子攜帶強作用力。它只能與自身以及與夸克相互作用。強核力具有一種稱為禁閉的古怪性質：它總是把粒子束縛成不帶顏色的結合體。由於夸克有顏色（紅、綠或藍），人們不能得到單獨的夸克。
