Our modern picture of the universe dates back to only 1924,when the American astronomer Edwin Hubble demonstrated that ours was not the only galaxy. There were in fact many others, with vast tracts of empty space between them. In order to prove this, he needed to determine the distances to these other galaxies, which are so far away that, unlike nearby stars, they really do appear fixed. Hubble was forced, therefore, to use indirect methods to measure the distances. Now, the apparent brightness of a star depends on two factors: how much light it radiates (its luminosity), and how far it is from us. For nearby stars, we can measure their apparent brightness and their distance, and so we can work out their luminosity.
Conversely, if we knew the luminosity of stars in other galaxies, we could work out their distance by measuring their apparent brightness. Hubble noted that certain types of stars always have the same luminosity when they are near enough for us to measure; therefore, he argued, if we found such stars in another galaxy, we could assume that they had the same luminosity - and so calculate the distance to that galaxy. If we could do this for a number of stars in the same galaxy, and our calculations always gave the same distance, we could be fairly confident of our estimate.
In this way, Edwin Hubble worked out the distances to nine different galaxies. We now know that our galaxy is only one of some hundred thousand million that can be seen using modern telescopes, each galaxy itself containing some hundred thousand million stars. Fig. 3.1 shows a picture of one spiral galaxy that is similar to what we think ours must look like to someone living in another galaxy. We live in a galaxy that is about one hundred thousand light-years across and is slowly rotating; the stars in its spiral arms orbit around its center about once every several hundred million years. Our sun is just an ordinary, average-sized, yellow star, near the inner edge of one of the spiral arms. We have certainly come a long way since Aristotle and Ptolemy, when thought that the earth was the center of the universe!
Luminosity 光度
1924年，我们现代的宇宙图象才被奠定。那是因为美国天文学家埃得温·哈勃证明了，我们的星系不是唯一的星系。事实上，还存在许多其他的星系，在它们之间是巨大的空虚的太空。为了证明这些，他必须确定这些星系的距离。这些星系是如此之遥远，不像邻近的恒星那样，它们确实显得是固定不动的。所以哈勃被迫用间接的手段去测量这些距离。众所周知，恒星的表观亮度决定于两个因素：多少光被辐射出来（它的绝对星等）以及它离我们多远。对于近处的恒星，我们可以测量其表观亮度和距离，这样我们可以算出它的绝对亮度。
相反，如果我们知道其他星系中恒星的绝对亮度，我们可用测量它们的表观亮度的方法来算出它们的距离。哈勃注意到，当某些类型的恒星近到足够能被我们测量时，它们有相同的绝对光度；所以他提出，如果我们在其他星系找出这样的恒星，我们可以假定它们有同样的绝对光度——这样就可计算出那个星系的距离。如果我们能对同一星系中的许多恒星这样做，并且计算结果总是给出相同的距离，则我们对自己的估计就会有相当的信赖度。
埃得温·哈勃用上述方法算出了九个不同星系的距离。现在我们知道，我们的星系只是用现代望远镜可以看到的几千亿个星系中的一个，每个星系本身都包含有几千亿颗恒星。图3.1所示的便是一个螺旋星系的图，从生活在其他星系中的人来看我们的星系，想必也是类似这个样子。我们生活在一个宽约为10万光年并慢慢旋转着的星系中；在它的螺旋臂上的恒星绕着它的中心公转一圈大约花几亿年。我们的太阳只不过是一个平常的、平均大小的、黄色的恒星，它靠近在一个螺旋臂的内边缘。我们离开亚里士多德和托勒密的观念肯定是相当遥远了，那时我们认为地球是宇宙的中心！
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